Sumerian Cities
By James W. Bell © 2001 - 2003
Although the cities of Sumeria were independent city states, most with lugals (kings), they also tended to be interdependent for three reasons:
(1) To maintain the rivers and canals that criss-crossed the Land, connecting cities and serving as the roadways of Sumer;
(2) To maximize benefits from extensive trading which resulted in specialization and
(3) To better serve the pantheon of gods who regularly met as the Assembly of the Gods at the Ekur temple in the holy city of Nippur on the Upper Euphrates.
*[ ..... ]* Indicate assumptions on which my stories are based.
Adab
(Not mentioned in the Bible)
Modern day Tell Bismaya
Located on the upper Iturungal Canal.
Click here to read the book by Edgar James Banks:
Bismya: The Lost City of Adab.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population approx. 13,000, urban area approx. 125 acres.]*
*[Adab, one of Sumer's older cities, was the northernmost city on the Iturungal Canal, sited on the east bank of the canal 15 miles below where it branched off from the Euphrates.]*
*[Adab was the cosmopolitan city of Northern Sumer, a city of mixed races, including Akkadian, Amurri and Sumerian populations. As Uruk was Sumer's southern trading city, Adab was the northern trading center, selling leather goods from Lagash, pottery from Zabalam, jewelry from Umma, metals from Bad-tibira, textiles from Larsa and dates from as far away as Ur. Originally, it existed to furnish supplies and sanctified foodstuffs to the temples in the holy city of Nippur. Because of its location on the heavily-traveled Iturungal, it also specialized in the sale of supplies and votive items to pilgrims on their way to the holy city.]*
*[The city's patron deity was ostensibly the Earth goddess, Ninhursag, but it's destiny was decreed by one of her daughters, Lisin, a little known goddess interested in handicraft production and trade.]*
Anshan
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Today's Tell Tepe Maylan.
Located in the mountains, southeast of Susa.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 10,000; urban area. approx. 125 acres.]*
Like Susa, Anshan was one of the major cities of the city-state of Elam. In the third millenium, Anshan was surrounded by a wall protecting 500 acres, only a quarter of which was occupied. The city had workshops for processing lapis luzuli and other materials imported from a distant area that today is known as Afghanistan.
The city's patron deity is not known.
Apisala
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Located north of the Gibil Canal east of Zabalam.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 1,000: urban area, less than 50 acres.]*
*[Apisala was a small outpost on the edge of the frontier, on the Gibil Canal at its intersection with the Ninagina. The town served mainly as a watcher (security) station to protect settlers along the eastern stretch of the Gibil Canal from mountain bandits raiding from the Hursag and to stop smuggling on the Ninagina Canal.]*
The city's patron deity is not known.
Aratta
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Located in the Zagros Mountains, possibly at the archaeological site of Godin, six miles east of Kangavar in southern Kurdistan in Iran.
*[27th Cenury BCE estimates: permanent population, 1,000; partially abandoned urban area, approx. 100 acres.]*
*[According to legend, when the gods first came down to the Earth, they built the city of Aratta on the highest mountaintops to be nearer to Heaven. The mountain range, today's Zagros Mountains, was called the Land of the Gods.]*
*[The gods lived in the city of Aratta with their newly-created servants, human mortals, nearby. Later, after the gods abandoned the city and moved down to the Plain of Sumer, humans took over the city.]*
*[When the other gods left, a young goddess named Innin, who had been born on the Earth and had therefore not been assigned a mission, took it on herself to take charge of Aratta. She remained its tutelary goddess until she was renamed by Anu as Inanna, Queen of Heaven. As Inanna, she followed the other gods down to the Plain of Sumer, where she took over the city of Zabalam on the Iturungal Canal. ]*
The Lord of Aratta pleaded for Inanna to return, but to no avail. *[The mountainlands grew lawless and became the home of bandits. They were thereafter called the Hursag and regarded as both foreign and hostile.]*
Babil
(Called Babylon by the Greeks)
(The Biblical Babylon and the Babel of Genesis.)
Located on the western branch
of the Upper Euphrates.
Click here to see archaeological site and art
Click here for two pages of images of Babylon
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population: less than 6,000, urban area less than 50 acres.]*
'Babylon' was the Greek name for this city. Although until the time of Hammurabi (1792-1749 BCE) this was hardly more than a village, Biblical references make it important.
*[It was in the city of Babil where the gods saw the ziggurat built, designed to reach Heaven. They chose to tear it down and confound the language of men so they no longer understood one another. They drove the inhabitants out of the city into the desert that lies to the south and west. The people endured, but lost the veneer of civilzation, becoming the Amurru (the Biblical Amorites).]*
*[It was Enki who, long afterwards, gave the deserted city of Babil to his son, Marduk. "Go, my son," he told young Marduk. "Go to Babil and get the mortals to help rebuild it. Make Babil once again the pre-eminent city on the Earth."]*
The patron deity of Babil was Marduk, Enki's son.
Bad-tibira
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern Tell al-Medain or Medina.
Located on the Iturungal Canal, below Umma.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population: approx. 19,000; urban area approx, 175 acres.]*
One of the five antediluvian cities of Sumeria, located on the southern part of the Iturungal where the canal turns to the west.
*[Bad-tibira was a city of reed-burning furnaces and smelteries situated on the edge of the marshlands, using the swamp as a source of water and reeds. Ores were brought from overseas via the Euphrates and Iturungal to the furnaces of Bad-tibira. Metals. principally copper, but also gold and silver, were shipped from there to artisan shops in the urban centers of Uruk, Ur, Umma and Adab.]*
The patron deity of Bad-tibira was Lulal, son of Inanna. The city was once the province of the god Dumuzi, Inanna's estranged husband.
Dabrum
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Jidr.
Located on the Upper Iturungal above Zabalam.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 3,000; urban area, less than 50 acres.]*
Dabrum was a minor city on the left bank of the Iturungal that served as a way station between Adab and Zabalam. *[It also served as a collection point for wool and agricultural produce.]*
The partron deity of Dabrum is not known.
Der
(Not mentioned in the Bible.}
(Modern day Tell Aqar [Badrah] in eastern Iraq.)
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 3,000; urban area less than 50 acres.]*
*[According to legend, Der was the citabel built by Anu in the middle pass of the Hursag after most gods abandoned the Land of the Gods. Its purpose was to protect Sumeria by serving as a bulwark against roving bands of mountain bandits. The cities of Eshununna and Susa protected the northern and southern passes respectively.]*
*[Der is where Innin first met Anu and where her name was changed to Inanna, Queen of Heaven. When Inanna later invited Anu to join her in the Eanna temple at Uruk, Anu gave dominion over Der to Ishtaran, a god interested in adjudicating border disputes.]*
The patron deity of Der was Ishtaran, who assumed the duty of protecting the border after Anu left.
Dilbat
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Deylum.
Located on the western branch
of the Upper Euphrates.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 5,000; urban area less than 50 acres.]*
Dilbat was located on the right bank of the Western Euphrates downriver from Babil.
*[The city was an agricultural center, producing reed products and grain grown in nearby fields locally using Amurru workers as an inexpensive source of labor. The nomad labor was cheaper than keeping slaves. The farms grew big in size, becoming plantations and producing families with immense landholdings. Dilbat was a walled city of trees, parks and beautiful buildings, a forerunner of what Babil (Babylon) would later become with its hanging gardens.]*
The patron deity of Dilbat was the goddess Urash.
Enegi
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Umm al-Wawiya.
Located just below the confluence of the Iturungal and Euphrates, across the canal from Uruk.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 5,000; urban area, less than 50 acres. ]*
Enegi, the northernmost Kaldee city, was located at the junction of the Iturungal Canal with the Euphrates River. It was a heavily walled city across the canal from of Uruk, the great trading center of Sumer.
*[Enegi was unique in fronting on the two great waterways of Sumer and was a city of shipyards and supplies for the Sumerian merchant marine.]*
The patron deity of Enegi was Ninazu.
Eridu
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Abu Shahrein - click here for scenes.
Located on the northern coast of the Lower Sea.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 1,000; built up urban area, approx. 100 acres.]*
One of the five antediluvian cities of Sumeria, Eridu is the oldest of all Sumerian cities.
*[For my stories, Eridu is situated on a lagoon called the Blue Lagoon on the coast of the Lower Sea (today's Persian or Arabian Gulf).]*
Legend has it that the god Enki came here from Dilman (today's Bahrain) and founded the city directly over the Abzu. According to the Sumerian King List, Eridu was the first capital of Sumer.
The patron deity of Eridu was Enki (Ea in Akkadian).
Eshnunna
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Asmar
Click here for images of figurines found at the site.
Located on the Lower Diyala River.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 12,000; urban area, approx. 100 acres.]*
Eshnunna was located on the Diyala River near its juntion with the Tigris.
*[Like Der and Susa, the other frontier cities situated along the foothills of the Hursag, the walled city of Eshnunna was built on a platform mount overlooking the Diyala valley. Though a part of the Sumerian hegemony, Eshnunna was the principal city of an area sometimes called Warum and served as its capital.]*
The patron deity of Eshnunna was Ninazu.
Girsu
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tello - archaeological site scenes.
*[Located on the Upper Ninagina Canal.]*
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population: approx. 8,000; urban area, less than 100 acres.]
*[Girsu was the northernmost Sealands city on the Ninagina Canal, sited on its left bank. It was located where the Summerian steppe met the marshlands. Girsu was subservient to Lagash, and Bau, wife of Girsu's god, Ningirsu, had a temple at Lagash. The city of Girsu was spectacular, with whitewashed buildings and tall date palms lining the canal bank. Much of the city's prosperity had to do with processing leather from Lagash and from smuggling profits earned by traffic on the Ninagina.]*
The patron deity of Girsu was Ningirsu.
Isin
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Ishan al-Bahriyat
Located on the Isinnitum Canal.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 4,000; urban area, approx. 50 acres.]*
*[Isin was a city in northwestern Sumer, to the west of the Euphrates, on the Isinnitum Canal. It was an entry point for Amurru leaving the desert and looking for a new life. Gula, the patron goddess of the city did what she could to help the sick and injured. The city consisted of single-storied utilitarian buildings without much design.]*
The patron deity of Isin was the goddess Gula.
Kesh
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Perhaps modern day Tell Jidr.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population approx. 11,000, urban area: approx. 100 acres.]*
The location of Kesh is uncertain, but it is likely somewhere southeast of Adab.
*[For my stories, I have placed it east of the Euphrates and north of the Gibil Canal, in an area between Sumer and the bandit-ridden mountainlands of the Hursag, in the land I've called the frontier. I have made it a community of settlers, principally nomadic Amurru from Tidnum who shepherded sheep in the foothills.]*
The patron deity of Kesh was the goddess Ninhursag.
KI.AN
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Located near Zabalam, possibly Tell Shmid.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: abandoned; extent of ruins, approx. 125 acres.]*
*[KI.AN (Sumerian KI = Earth, AN = Heaven), Heaven on Earth, was an ancient walled cultic center on the right bank of the Iturungal Canal above Zabalam. By the time of my stories, it had long been abandoned and was in ruins.]*
*[The tutelary god of KI.AN is unknown.]*
Kish
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Al Ukhaimir.
Click here for scenes of the archaeological site.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 32,000; urban area, 250 acres.]*
According to the Sumerian King List, Kish was the first postdiluvian capital of Sumer.
*[This Akkadian city was where the god, Enlil, handed down kingship after the Flood. For centuries afterwards, the king of a ruling city, no matter which city, would add to his title, " ... and king of Kish." This ancient city, located on the middle branch of the Upper Euphrates was for many years the city of crafts in the north. By the time my stories take place, kingship had moved south to the Sumerian city of Uruk.]*
The patron deity of Kish was Zababa.
Kisiga (see Kuara)
Kisurra
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Abu-Hatab.
Located on the Middle Euphrates above Shuruppak.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 5,000; urban area, less than 50 acres.]
*[A port on the right bank of the Euphrates River at its juncture with the southern end of the Isinnitum Canal. A city able to communicate by fire signals with Zabalam on the other side of Eden.]*
The patron god of Kisurra was Ninurta.
Kuara (also known as Kisiga)
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Probably modern day Tell al-Lahm.
Located on the northern coast of the Lower Sea.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 5,000; urban area, less than 50 acres.]*
*[Kuara was the principal seaport on the Lower Sea (Persian or Arabian Gulf) at the mouth of the Euphrates River. The city was also the bithplace Marduk, Enki's son, who was first known as Asarluhi. The city, called Kisiga by the Kaldees, was a port city dependent upon overseas trade, especially with Dilmun.]*
The patron deity of Kuara was Meslamtea.
Kutallu (also known as Kutalla)
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Sift
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 4,000; urban area, less than 35 acres.]*
"[A city on the right bank of the Susuka Canal in the heart of Chaldea. It was surrounded by date plantations and was a leading producer of dried dates, date wine and date honey. It also had fruit trees which grew under the canopy of the palms. Craft shops there produced products made of palm tree wood, fiber and fronds. Most of Kutallu's production was sent downwater by the Susuka Canal to Ur for sale or transshipment.]*
The patron deity of Kutallu is unknown.
Kutha (also known as Kutu)
(Biblical connection: See Cuthah in II Kings 17:24
and Cuth in II Kings 17:30.)
Near modern day Tell Habil Ibraham.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: populatioin, less than 5,000; urban area, less than 100 acres.]*
*[Kutha was a very ancient city, a smuggler's marketplace located on the eastern branch of the Upper Euphrates. It was often under siege by the Amurru or Guti, or sometimes both. It had a large underground trade in obsidian, lapis lazuli, carnelian and other precious stones and metals that came from the northeast (modern day Iran and Afghanistan). These gems were shipped downstream to jewelry craftsmen in Umma, Uruk and other cities.]*
*[Kutha had a sleazy appearnace. It was a city of sin and excitement, where money changed hands fast. The farmlands around the city, where dry farming is possible, were partially abandoned by their owners who had 'struck it rich' in town.]*
The patron deity of Kutha was Nergal, King of the Underworld.
Lagash
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Al-Hiba
Click here for scenes from the archaeological site.
Located on the east bank of the Ninagina Canal.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 25,000; urban area, approx. 250 acres.]*
*[Lagash was a port on the left hand side of the Ninagina Canal. It was the capital of the state known as Lagash (or Sealands). Situated near the mountainlands of the Hursag, it was the primary slave-trading center for Sumeria. It also served as a center for processing and tanning leather, especially from water buffalo. Being on the Ninagina Canal and adjacent to the marshlands, it was a port of entry for smugglers. However, due to extensive tanning operations, the atmosphere at Lagash had a distinctively unpleasant odor.]*
The patron deity of Lagash was the goddess Bau.
Larak
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
The site of this antediluvian city is unknown.
Larak was one of the antediluvian cities mentioned in the Sumerian King List.
*[For my stories, I have assigned it a location on the right bank of the Euphrates above Ur. The city was wiped out when the Flood occurred and never rebuilt, serving as a living memorial to the wrath of Enlil. During the Flood, its god, Pabilsag, left the Great Above and descended to the Netherworld.]*
Larsa
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Senkere.
Located on the Lower Iturungal near Enegi.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population: approx. 25,000; urban area: approx. 250 acres.]*
Larsa was located on the left bank of the Iturungal Canal near its juntion with the Euphrates at Uruk-Enegi. It was situated at both the demographic and geographic center of Sumer.
*[For my stories, Larsa is a city of warehouses and other buildings crowding the quay on the canal. It specialized in product modification, especially textile dyeing for trade with the Amurru and overseas. The city thrived as a trading center because of 'fair treatment' and 'playing by the rules,' both enforced by Shamash.]*
The patron deity of Larsa was the sun god, Shamash.
Marad
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Wannat es-Sadum.
Located on the right bank of the western branch
of the Upper Euphrates.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 5,000; urban area. less than 50 acres.]*
*[For my stories, Marad was the desert city of Sumeria, located on the right bank of the western branch of the Upper Euphrates. There was little trade except to serve as a collection point for what the Amurru brought in from the desert. Marad was a typical desert city composed of mud brick buildings surrounded by a low city wall.]*
The patron deity of Marad was Ninurta, the Storm God..
Nagsu
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Location is unknown.
*[Assumed 27th Century BCE figures: population, less than 3,000; urban area, less than 50 acres.]*
*[For my stories, Nagsu was on the left bank of the Iturungal Canal at a point one day's journey down from Umma, where a small canal, the Nantuma, branched off southward leading into the marshlands and connecting, ultimately, with the Ninagina Canal. The Nanatuma was one of the favorite routes for smugglers to avoid port inspections and resulting tolls. From there, smuggled goods were shipped overseas or on to legitimate markets in Sumer.]*
The patron deity of Nagsu is unknown.
Nina (also known as Sirara)
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern Tell Zurghul in southern Iraq.
Located on the Lower Sea coast
at the mouth of the Ninagina Canal.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, less than 5,000; urban area, less than 50 acres.]*
*[For my stories, Nina is a port city on the right hand bank of the Ninagina Canal where it empties into the Lower Sea. Enki raised a hill from the marshlands on which to build the city for his daughter, Nanshe.]*
The patron deity of Nina was the goddess Nanshe.
Nippur
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Niffer (Nuffar).
Click here for scenes from the archaeological site.
Click here for the Holy City of Nippur excavations.
Located on the left bank of the mid Euphrates.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 18,000; urban area, approx. 200 acres.]*
Nippur was located on the left bank of the Euphrates River and served as the dividing line between Sumer and Akkad, except for the Sumerian cities of Sippar and Eshnunna which were both north of Nippur. Nippur was a holy city, where Enlil, king of the gods, had his temple, called the Ekur. The Assembly of the Gods met at the Ekur. Nippur, much like today's Mecca, stood aloof from politics, but kings from cities throughout Sumeria went to Nippur to gain recognition for their kingship.
The patron deity of Nippur was Enlil, king of the gods.
Shuruppak
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Fara
Located on the Euphrates north of Uruk.
*[27th Century estimates: population, approx. 21,000; urban area, approx. 250 acres.]*
Shuruppak was one of the five antediluvian cities according to the Sumerian King List. It is located on the right hand bank of the Euphrates River some thirty miles north of Uruk. The Flood came while Ubartutu was lugal (king) of Shuruppak, and Utnapishtim / Ziusura / Atra-hasis (three names for the Sumerian Noah who came from Shuruppak) built an ark and rode to safety with his family.
*[In my stories, Shuruppak was the center of an agriculture district along the Euphrates. It also served as a collection center for products brought in from the desert by the Amurru.]*
Shuruppak's patron deity was the goddess Sud.
Sippar
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Abu Habbah.
Click here for scenes from the archaeological site.
More archaeological site scenes are here.
Located on the Upper Euphrates near present-day Baghdad.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 16,000; urban area, approx. 200 acres.]*
Sippar is the northernmost city of Sumer and is where the Euphrates River bifurcated. In ancient days, the Euphrates was often called 'The River of Sippar.' It was one of the five antediluvian cities listed in the Sumerian King List.
*[In my stories, Sippar is a distant trading outpost, shipping locally grown wool and agricultural products down the Euphrates. It also trans-shipped bitumen from Is (also called Tuttul, the modern city of Hit) and was the jumping off point for those venturing up the Euphrates valley.]*
Sippar's patron deity was the Sumerian sun god, Shamash.
Sirara (see Nina)
Susa
(The Biblical 'Shushan' - the site of Esther and the story of Daniel and the lions.
See the books of Nehemiah, Esther and Daniel.)
Modern day city of Shush in Iran
Located on a plain east of Sumer.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 22,000; urban area, approx. 300 acres.]*
Susa, located on the Ulai Canal, was the capital of both the province of Susiana and the country of Elam.
*[In my stories, Susa was one of the earliest cities, located near the Land of the Gods which was in the mountains. An early civilization flourished there producing, among other things, beautiful pottery for the gods.]*
The patron deity of Susa was the Elamite god Inshushinak.
Umma
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Jokha.
Click here for scenes from the archaeological site.
Located on the middle Iturungal Canal.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx.31,000; urban area, approx. 500 acres.]*
Umma was a sizable city on the left bank of the Iturungal Canal at its junction with the Gibil Canal.
*[In my stories, Umma was a city of jewelers and other artisans working with precious metals from Bad-tibira and precious stones imported from overseas and from the east. The city-state had numerous conflicts with Lagash over a large tract of fertile agricultural land to the south between the two cities, called the Gu-edin.]*
Umma's patron deity was Shara, one of Inanna's sons.
Ur
(This city is the Biblical 'Ur of Chaldea' that Abraham came from. See: Genesis 11:28,31; 15,7; I Chronicles 11,35; and Nehemiah 9,7.)
Modern day Tell al-Muqayyar.
Click here for a brief history of Ur.
Click here for scenes from the archaeological site.
Located on the left bank of the Lower Euphrates.
*[ 27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 34,000; urban area, approx 150 acres.]*
The city of Ur, on the left bank of the Lower Euphrates, was the largest city in Chaldea and served as its capital.
*[In my stories, Ur unsuccessfully competed with Uruk for trade but served as the primary center for date and dye exports.]*
Ur's patron deity was the moon god, Sin.
Uruk
(This is the Biblical 'Erech' : Genesis 10,10.)
Modern day Tell Warka
Click here for scenes from the archaeological site. Located at the juntion of the Iturungal Canal with the Euphrates River.
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population, approx. 80,000; urban area, approx. 1,000 acres.]*
Uruk, at the confluence of the Iturungal Canal with the Euphrates River was the largest city in the world of ancient Sumeria. It was the trading center of Sumer and was often called "the Marketplace of the Land."
Because of its extensive trading activity, it had a diverse population and was often referred to as 'The Rainbow City.' Actually, Uruk was a combination of two cities; Kullab, the secular half, which fronted on the Euphrates River and Eanna, the older divine half which fronted on the Iturungal Canal.
*[For the purpose of my stories, Uruk is also the center of the Karum, a guild of independent tradesmen called the traders. Besides being the marketplace of Sumeria, it was also its financial center.]*
The patron deity of Uruk was the goddess Inanna, who was later known as Ishtar by the Babylonians.
Zabalam
(Not mentioned in the Bible.)
Modern day Tell Ibzeikh.
Located on the Iturungal Canal at its junction with the Ninagina Canal..
*[27th Century BCE estimates: population,approx. 9,000; urban area, approx. 100 acres.]*
*[In my stories, Zabalam. sometimes written Zabala, was on the left bank of the Iturungal Canal, at its juntion with the Ninagina, which also gave it access to the Gibil Canal. It was one of the important ports of Sumeria. Locally, it produced ceramics.]*
The patron deity of Zabalam was the goddess Inanna.
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